Diversity in News Media
Prior to the civil rights movement in the 1960s, little official attention focused on the employment of people of color in the media. By the late 1960s, Government agencies are formed to address equal employment. As a result of the Kerner Report, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the Civil Rights Commission and the FCC all focus on media employment practices.
In 1969 the EEOC concluded that due to “…the fact that the industry plays a critical role in influencing public opinion and creating this countries image of itself…” that “… in order to portray accurately the nation’s minority groups, the industry must employ minority personnel at all levels…” The EEOC finds that adequate representation for AHANAs in media is not possible without their direct involvement in the industry.
In 1977 the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights came to several conclusions about the hiring of AHANAs in television. Executives assumed that realistic depictions of AHANAs would detract from acquiring the largest possible audience. AHANA employment in television was misrepresented in reports to the FCC. AHANAs were not employed at all levels of station management or local station operations. White males made the majority of decisions. AHANAs held assistant positions. AHANA representation on-air did not equate to representation behind the scenes, or “Window Dressing.”
From 1978 onward, AHANA employment in Daily Newspapers steadily increases until 1998, where the percentage increase between 1998 and 2001 is 0.1%, dropping from a 1.7% increase in 1998 and a 2.8% increase in 1993, which appears to be the peak of the percentage increase per year.
AHANAs are still difficult to find in decision making positions of news media. “In 2001, the American Society of Newspaper Editors reported that 9% of daily newspaper supervisors were people of color (up from 7% in 1992) and that 19% of all non-White newspaper employees were in supervisory positions.”
Racial insensitivity has been seen to be prevalent among news editors, the opinion that hiring AHANAs reduces the quality of a newspaper is still lingering as recent as 2001, when R.D. Volkman of the North Sioux City Times concluded that hiring AHANAs “is dangerous for newspapers who plan for a long future.” For many years prior, the news industry claimed that there simply weren’t qualified minorities to hire, as this was proven wrong the excuse changed that they couldn’t keep any of the qualified AHANAs which were hired. In 2001, newspapers hired 600 entry level AHANA journalists, however 698 left the industry that year. Also in 2001, at an ASNE convention a man wildly stereotyped the Chinese in a display which revealed the true mindset of many editors.
Reasons for AHANA departure include: “…papers cover issues of concern to their racial consituency marginally or poorly…”; “Journalists of color were twice as likely as their White colleagues to believe that race plays a role in newsroom assignments, promotions and advancement.”; and “… newsroom managers and supervisors doubt the ability of journalists of color to perform their jobs adequately.” Pease and Smith called AHANA journalists “besieged,” and rightly so, as not only was management unsupporting of journalists of color but issues important to AHANAs were simply not covered adequately, painting a somewhat futile work environment for AHANAs as journalists.
Journalists of color today are still leaving the profession due to similar problems, “citing the lack of diverse perspectives in news coverage and charging their superiors with a lack of respect for their skills.” Not much has changed since Pease and Smith’s 1991 research. With a history of distorting employment statistics and marginalization/insensitivity to racial issues, it can be seen that while employment percentages have risen since 1978, AHANAs still do not receive adequate representation or voice in the press, and as a result racial discrimination still exists in the news media today.
The Apprentice
The Apprentice, while not specifically about race, “contained (and reinforced) racial messages that are part of the dominant American ideology.” In creating media which appeals to American society, the values and standards of what is perceived normal American life are reinforced. Underlying racial ideologies can be found. The current “racial status quo” has Whites at the top, with AHANAs underrepresented in nearly all aspects of American life.
From the beginning, The Apprentice shows a lack of AHANA representation – the world is white and black. Katrina, a Cuban American, is never recognized as such, and while Tammy’s biography identifies her as an Asian American, neither her culture or ethnicity are addressed on camera. Both Katrina and Tammy were characterized only as females, portrayed as sex objects and dramatics.
Omarosa and Kwame received perhaps the worst stereotyping. Omarosa was “…presented as embodying the ‘bad black’ stereotype, she became the character the audience was invited to dislike…” Her depiction as a “…combative, lazy, self-pitying complainer who did not work well with others…” is not only a stereotype, but is a stereotype that is intentionally utilized by the shows creators. “Yet, she remained on the show longer than her talents seemed to justify.” The drama created through her stereotypical behaviour helped keep the audience, and so her personality was harnessed even beyond her participation in the “game” of the Apprentice. In my mind, this highlights an issue in the membership of the audience as well as the creators, who are drawn to drama created by stereotypical personalities, it is apparent that as a society we have not progressed much farther than minstrel shows.
Kwame, almost entirely opposite of Omarosa, is stereotyped as that of the “good black.” His devotion to being Troy’s sidekick, subordinate demeanor and complacency all represent the image of a follower. Kwame presents no danger to whiteness, as he listens to directions, never talks backs, and defers to his white partners judgment on important matters. In terms of the show, this backfired for Kwame at the end when his subordinate personality became the reason for his firing.
In the case of both Omarosa and Kwame, the message delivered to Whites is that “they” (as Black) are solely responsible and at fault for their failure, and their failure is due in no part to White ideals or systems. This is evidence of the dominant White view in today’s media, it illustrates the self serving nature that media promotes the White status quo and shelters itself from racial insecurity while failing to represent the reality of AHANAs that are not encompassed by stereotypes.
Racial Politics in Film and Television
Entertainment and news media repeatedly show certain types of people in certain roles, and by doing this they encourage us to see others and ourselves in certain ways. This is referred to as the “politics of representation.” While not necessarily self conscious, ideology on how society should work often operates on a subconscious level and is still promoted.
“Entertainment does not just tell stories, it tells particular stories in a way that privileges some people and points of view over others.” Unconsciously, then, privileged White ideals form a hierarchy in narrative structure that puts the White race above others, and promotes a dominant/subordinate relationship.
Entertainment reinforces the subordinate role of AHANAs through a variety of methods, including exclusion, selective exclusion, stereotyping, and system supported themes. Media without diversity “promote an inaccurate picture of American society.” AHANAs are not presented as role models and do not see the contributions of other AHANAs. Exclusion hides social problems, presenting them as inclusive issues that do not effect society as a whole.
Selective exclusion depicts AHANAs in ways that “constrains or misrepresents them.” This can happen in a variety of ways, such as ignoring national or ethnic variations within a race, such as difference between Native American tribes. By omitting these details and grouping the “other” together, the representations of AHANAs are crippled, implying that their only important feature is that they are not White.
Both positive and negative stereotyping are detrimental to AHANAs. Even sympathetic stereotypes, such as the noble savage, suggest inferiority to whites as it characterizes and confines Native Americans to a certain role. Stereotyping implies an inferiority, and suggests that it is only natural that subordinate roles are filled by those stereotyped. Stereotyping works negatively on the population it stereotypes, as well, “we have learned to settle for less – to accept the fact that we are either decorative, invisible or one dimensional.”
System-supportive themes are prevalent in “sincere fictions.” Essentially White fantasies, narrative is used in media to show that Whites are natural leaders which AHANAs are destined to follow. “The messianic white self is the redeemer of the weak, the great leader who saves black from slavery or oppression, rescues people of color from poverty and disease, or leads Indians in battle for their dignity and survival.”
Indeed, films such as Amistad and The Last Samurai come to mind, where even in stories rooted in another ethnicities history, where the oppressors are in fact White men, a White main character is still the AHANA’s advocate and lead savior from other White men. Amistad, the story of a slave ship fighting for it’s independence, has hardly any African heroes. All Africans in the film are depicted as unintelligible, illiterate, savages. One male African, played by Djimon Hounsou, could have been the hero and main advocate of his people, but is forced to share this with Matthew McConnaughey, who represents the white messiah and advocate of subordinate Africans.
The Last Samurai is similar, in that even though the West is conquering the East; Tom Cruise the White messiah abandons his own people and joins the Samurai to help them find their own glory. This puts Tom Cruise as the White savior, promoting a status quo that even in cultures that have nothing to do with White society, a White man can still assimilate and become their leader.
This sort of systematic reinforcement maintains Whites as dominant leaders, capable of overcoming any odds in any circumstances. It usurps the real leaders in favor of an all encompassing White hero-messiah which can solve any problem, and promotes the notion that all AHANAs were meant to be lead by Whites. This sort of theme suggests in the minds of audiences that racial inequality is the fault of AHANAs. AHANAs are painted as inept and incompetent, too weighed down by their own problems to help themselves, necessitating the help of the White man. Simultaneously this promotes Whites own self worth while promoting AHANAs as subordinate and less capable.
Conclusions
As these articles have illustrated, there is a severe gap between what is real in society and what is portrayed as real in today’s media. While AHANA employment in the media industries fails to meet parity quantitatively, media produced by White decision makers fails to meet parity qualitatively as well. As Kwame and Omarosa showed us, when AHANAs are depicted in popular media such as the Apprentice they often fall into categories of “good” or “bad.” Subservience is the sign of a “good” AHANA, and loud, over the top misconduct is the sign of “bad” AHANAs. Such limited representation of different cultures causes stereotypes. It is clear that unless we want years of more sincere fictions, AHANA employment in media industries is imperative.
Key Points for Discussion
Diversity in News Media -
1.Racial insensitivity among news editors has been prevalent for decades.
2.Excuses consistently made as to why AHANA employment has not increased.
3.Statistics are skewed by media companies by renaming positions to seem as though more AHANAs work in management.
4.In 2001, although 600 new AHANA journalists were hired, 698 quit.
5.AHANA journalists complain that “papers cover issues of concern to their racial constituency marginally or poorly.”; “Journalists of color were twice as likely as their White colleagues to believe that race plays a role in newsroom assignments, promotions and advancement.” and “newsroom managers and supervisors doubt the ability of journalists of color to perform their jobs adequately.” So, they are forced to work in an environment of constant anxiety due to their skin color, meanwhile the reports they are sent to cover aren’t taken seriously or aren’t as important and meanwhile their bosses expect them to fail.
The Apprentice -
1.Omarosa and Kwame are put into roles of “bad black” and “good black”, respectively.
2.Both Omarosa and Kwame are utilized for their stereotypes, and then removed from the game when they are no longer needed. Omarosa is even brought back after she was kicked off, and stayed on much longer than expected due to the popularity of her drama.
3.Stereotyping such as Omarosa’s and Kwame’s reinforces White’s own ideals that it is not the fault of the system, but the fault of the people failing to assimilate into it.
Racial Politics in Film and Television -
1.While not always conscious, the politics of representation effect everything we see.
2.Modern politics of representation involves privileged White ideals forming a hierarchy that puts the White race above others, and promotes a dominant/subordinate relationship.
3.AHANAs are not presented as role models and do not see the contributions of other AHANAs.
4.Exclusion hides social problems, presenting AHANA issues as inclusive that do not affect society as a whole.
5.Selective exclusion marginalizes or generalizes entire cultures, such as Native American tribes being considered the same.
6.Both positive and negative stereotyping are detrimental to society, stereotyping implies inferiority and suggests it is only natural that subordinate roles are filled by those stereotyped.
7.System supportive themes such as sincere fictions allow Whites to see themselves as heroes, even in circumstances where Whites are the oppressors.
8.Sincere fictions promote the idea of the White messiah, willing to lead any other culture to victories that they would otherwise be unable to accomplish. This simultaneous promotes Whites self worth while presenting AHANAs as subordinate and less capable.
References
Wilson/Gutierrez/Chao. (2003) Access: Toward Diversity With (Un) Deliberate Speed. In Racism, Sexism, and the Media: The Rise of Class Communication in Multicultural America. Thousand Oaks California, Sage Publications.
Larson. Reality Television: American Myths and Racial Ideology. In Bramlett-Solomon, Sharon (Ed.) MCO 460 Race, Gender and Media. Phoenix, AZ. Alphagraphics: pp 117-125.
Larson. Racial Politics in Fictional Media: Films and Television. In Bramlett-Solomon, Sharon (Ed.) MCO 460 Race, Gender and Media. Phoenix, AZ. Alphagraphics: pp 126-134.
Analysis of Race in National and Local Press Advertisements
Race is one of the most controversial yet least discussed issues of today. Though the civil rights movements of decades past made distinct strides towards progress, they also instilled the idea that racism has been “fixed” in modern society. This notion has progressed “normal” racism, to “New Racism”, where racial bias is not found on the surface but in the very structure our society operates within. (Littlefield, 2008) By analyzing national and local press advertisements, this paper will demonstrate how new racism influences our perceptions.
As Stuart Hall has taught us, our identities are created not solely from our idea of what we are, but also from our perception of what we are not. (Hall, 1991) In this, today’s mass media has a responsibility to provide the public with an accurate representation of the population. Without this accurate representation, our own national identity is skewed, we view ourselves as a White nation. By achieving parity in the mass media, it will be possible for Americans to actually see what we are – the most diverse nation in the world – and also recognize that we are not a single cultural entity that can be rigidly defined.
To this end, this paper analyzes advertisements in the Arizona Republic and USA Today for depictions by race. The aim is to attain both a local and national perspective, wherein it is hypothesized that a local paper will better represent the demographics of it’s geographic region whereas a national paper will have a much more broad, general appeal.
The Arizona Republic was founded in May 19, 1890 under the original name The Arizona Republican, and was originally known for it’s racist views against Native Americans, Blacks and Hispanics. The paper has gone through a variety of changes since 1890, and ideally the effect of civil rights movements should be visible. It was the tenth US daily newspaper in circulation in 2007, and is owned by the Gannett Company.
USA Today, also owned by the Gannett Company, is the widest circulating newspaper in the United States. Started in 1982, the paper is a product of modernization, using color and adapting a more visually appealing style to contrast with the black and white classically found in print.
This analysis was done by collecting six copies of each paper between February 19th and 29th, 2008. A total of 936 ads were coded for Caucasian, African American, Native American, Asian American, Hispanic American, and Middle Eastern American citizens. The advertisements were also coded according to type with the following categories: Food/Beverage/Alcohol, Home/office appliance, Education/publication, Fashion/cosmetics, Business/finance/insurance, Health/medicine, Electronics/computer, Hotel/airlines/travel, Automobile, and Other. The Arizona Republic was found to have significantly more advertising, taking up 723 or 77% of the total.
Findings – The Arizona Republic
Being a local Arizona paper, it was hypothesized that Hispanic and Native American representation would be equal to or higher than parity. As can be seen in Figure 1, this was partially correct. Curiously, while Native Americans were overrepresented, Hispanics were depicted 4% under parity, the only official (listed on U.S. Census) group to be inadequately represented.
During coding, it was discovered that the Arizona Republic contained a bias towards Fashion/cosmetics advertisements as well as a category that had to be created due to skewing statistics for the Other category, Local Events and Entertainment. These two categories combined make up 60% of the total advertising.
Fashion/Cosmetics
Fashion/cosmetics is an important category to examine regardless of the frequency which it appears, as it is truly defining our national self image. The images selling us the latest fashion imply a definition for beauty which we base all other judgments upon. This category was found to be 68% Caucasian, 17% African American, 7% Hispanic, 3% Asian and less than 1% Native American.
The implications of this distribution are numerous, to begin with the difference between Caucasian totals for all ads (74%) shows us how today’s youth market and popular culture is slowly becoming more diverse. It is less and less “cool” to be Caucasian, explaining the rise in African American representation. This is demeaning, however, as it highlights how African Americans are only allowed superficial equality, often recognized in public view for sexual appeal or physical prowess.
Hispanic representation in this category stays similar to the totals, showing us that while the perceived demographic by advertisers is smaller than parity, it is at least constant in this particular context. If numerical parity cannot be reached, it can at least be seen positively when a certain ethnic group isn’t manipulated to create an image around a product.
Asian Americans, as is found through the majority of this study, remain very close to parity. Native Americans are mostly under represented, and along with Hispanic statistics show us resistance to integration with southwestern culture through fashion. Not only are these two groups unable to fulfillingly see themselves portrayed in fashion media, but no other group does either, which according to Hall is as damaging to the other groups as the two that are excluded. (Hall, 1991)
Local Events and Entertainment
This category is interesting because it indirectly tells us a couple things. First, this is how local businesses perceive – or want to perceive – the majority of their clients. Based on this knowledge, we can go another step and qualify that the people represented in these ads are who are thought to live in this area, and willingly will participate in events. The absence of a certain group can be thought to imply, though with some uncertainty, that this group is unwelcome or outside of the perceived client base of businesses in Arizona.
With that in mind, Caucasian (79%), African American (11%), Hispanic (3%), Asian (<1%), Native American (5%), highlights a few more implications. Hispanic representation is laughably low, especially for a state on the Mexican border. This is one area where Asian representation falls behind at close to none. According to most local venues, there are no Asian Americans in Arizona and hardly any Hispanics. African American percentages are lower than parity, however not so distinctly lower to imply a severe under representation. The over representation of Caucasians tells us who local businesses want showing up, regardless of whether they expect them or not.
Native American representation here is interesting, but makes sense. Local businesses, moreso than any other advertisers are going to know to whom they should market. Therefore this increase in representation seems natural, but when compared side by side to Hispanic results brings up some questions. Why would businesses, who market to Native Americans knowing there is a demographic for such, not market to Hispanics when they should know there is an even larger demographic? Perhaps this suggests overall attitudes towards these particular groups from a White perspective? Since illegal immigration is a current hot topic, are Hispanics currently looked down upon by the White ideal while Native Americans are currently more favorable?
Findings – USA Today
Being the most widely circulated newspaper in the U.S., the responsibility of promoting an openly diverse market falls squarely on USA Today’s shoulders. This is the face of our nation.
Shown in Figure 2, we find some not unexpected but interesting results. To start, 69% Caucasian is much more favorably close to parity than the 74% found in our local sample. African and Asian American representation is slightly above parity, while Hispanics remain below. This sample was also the only evidence in this study that other races exist outside of those that have already been labeled.
This paper, while having far fewer advertisements than the Arizona Republic, was shown to also have a certain concentration of advertising in Hotel/airlines/travel and Electronics/computers. Together these categories represent 57% of total advertising.
Hotel/Airlines/Travel
This category is as telling as it is confusing. 93% Caucasian, 3% African American, 0% Hispanic, 4% Asian American and 0% Native American. This is saying many things but two things in particular, either travel agencies only believe Caucasians have the money and time to travel, or currently the White ideal is to leave this country.
Similar to how films have been found to reveal an “Us” against “Them” mentality within Whiteness, could this be a last stand of sorts from White mentality? (Ramirez-Berg, 2002) If not, the fact that it is very clearly only Whites who travel agencies and hotels expect to book, what does it say about our society that they are the only group of people who are currently expected to be financially secure enough to travel?
Electronics
51% Caucasian, 27% African American, 17% Hispanic, 3% Asian American, 0% Native American. The combination of the severe drop in Caucasian representation and rise of African American and Hispanic representation shows us, similar to Fashion, how AHANA’s are used in marketing. A few ideas jump out at what could have caused this drastic change:
1) African Americans and Hispanics are assumed to be uninformed or less caring about current technology, and therefore higher representation is required to offset.
2) Youth culture, similar to fashion, will follow AHANA culture within electronics.
3) AHANAs, often stereotyped as spending money on quick, tangible rewards, are a market that advertisers definitely want to make sure they cover.
Regardless, it’s difficult to see any positivity in this gross disparity, other than it is refreshing to see the scales tipped in the other direction, though still unbalanced.
Conclusions
Native Americans are over represented in the Arizona Republic but not represented in USA Today. This was expected, however national parity is a goal.
While it appears parity has been reached for African Americans based on the totals in national in local press, when the ads are categorized a bias is discovered towards fashion and electronics. African Americans appear to be confined to a superficial, material world.
Asian Americans are over represented or close to parity in all categories except for local events. There’s not too much to say about Asian American representation based on this study, except that the statistics are close to parity.
Hispanic representation has not reached parity in any examined area except for national electronics, which they are overrepresented. There is a clear evidence of Hispanic under representation.
Caucasian percentages are close to or under parity in every field except for national travel, which with 93% representation highlights a significant bias. What does this bias tell us?
Throughout this entire study not a single Middle Easterner was found.
Works Cited
Hall, Stuart. (1991). Ethnicity: Identity & Difference. Radical America. 23-4: 9 – 20.
Littlefield, Marci. (2008). The Media as a System of Racialization: Exploring Images of African American Women and the New Racism. American Behavioral Scientist. 51-5: 675 – 685.
Ramirez-Berg, Charles. (2002). Categorizing the Other: Stereotypes and Stereotyping. Latino Images in Film: Stereotypes, Subversion, Resistance. Austin: University of Texas Press. pgs. 13 – 37.
